Lochner Era etc essays

Lochner Era and so on expositions Paul Kens, in his book Lochner v. New York: Economic Regulation on Preliminary, puts forth the defense that Lochner, and the Lochner period of the Supreme Court, frames the establishment of ideological fights among financial aspects and individual freedom and rights. The court found, all things considered, that the state of New York had abused fair treatment and the right of agreement between managers and representatives. (Kens, 1998) That was an integral part of an idea of the legitimate framework Kens said was utilized to acceptable impact similarly as making a financial powerhouse. The most significant capacity of the American legitimate framework in the nineteenth century was to cultivate the development of an ever-growing national economy. The government legal executive in the late nineteenth century partook in this task by utilizing the forces that the fourteenth Amendment offered it to ensure the monetary privileges of American residents. The most significant of these rights was the option to enter unreservedly into contracts. Opportunity of agreement permitted Americans to utilize productively the different variables of creation to make a modern economy that was the most profitable on the planet by the center of the twentieth century. The effective formation of this monetary juggernaut approves the turn-of-the-century court's choice to utilize the fourteenth Revision to secure monetary rights to the detriment of other common and individual rights. (Kens, 1998) The editors of the arrangement where this present Kens' book shows up moreover noted, be that as it may, that the case raised a large group of noteworthy inquiries as to impulse of state governing bodies to enter the working environment (Kens, 1998) and organization guidelines of different sorts, dilemmas which proceed The ways of thinking hidden the Supreme Court's choice in Lochner v.... <!

Health and Safety to Minimise Musculoskeletal Disorder Risk

Wellbeing and Safety to Minimize Musculoskeletal Disorder Risk Proposals Presentation This part is worried about suggestions which can be advanced so as to dispense with or limit danger of musculoskeletal issue emerging from ergonomic and different perils. The chain of importance of controls will be considered for advancing the proposals. Chain of command of peril control The chain of command of peril control is a framework which gives different danger control strategies, running from the best to the least compelling techniques. The progression of danger control is as per the following: Disposal Disposal is the most ideal approach to control a peril as the threat related with it is totally expelled from the working environment however as a rule it is unimaginable. Replacement The second best method of controlling dangers is by replacement which lessens the perils related with an undertaking, movement or procedure somewhat and new risks can be presented however it will have a less destructive impact on the laborers. Building controls Building controls includes the utilization of physical boundaries to forestall communication between the laborers and the dangers by updating of the procedure, occupation or movement. Authoritative controls Authoritative controls are worried about changes in the approaches and methods of the association. These include: Employment turn Overhauling of errand, movement or procedure Execution of safe working techniques Preparing, guidance and data. Individual Protective Equipment (PPE) The least successful method of controlling perils is by the utilization of PPE. Here the laborers are furnished with PPE’s, for example, ear covers, visors, respiratory veil to forestall introduction to the risk. It is viewed as the least compelling as: The risk is as yet present On the off chance that the laborer has worn it inappropriately, he/she is presented to the risk They can make risks some of the time as they meddle with development. Suggestions for the fourdepartments Suggestions to the issues recognized in the four divisions in the manufacturing plant that is cutting, gathering and completing will be given. The suggestions for these four divisions won't be the equivalent however there are a few proposals which are material to every one of them, which are as per the following: Employment revolution Employment revolution falls in the regulatory techniques for controlling risks. Occupation turn includes pivoting the representatives from various employments, particularly the individuals who utilizes a similar gathering of muscle over and over and in which the laborers receive poor stances. Smaller scale breaks Miniaturized scale breaks, as their name proposes are little breaks which can go from 30 seconds to two minutes which the specialist can take in the wake of working persistently for 30 minutes while either standing or sitting. These breaks are significant as it empowers the musculoskeletal arrangement of the laborer to rest, consequently diminishing the danger of creating MSDs, particularly if the errands includes tedious developments, ungainly stances and continues for extensive stretch of time. Preparing in great taking care of and lifting methods Great taking care of and lifting methods are fundamental as it decreases the danger of creating MSDS. This is accomplished when the specialist receives the procedures. Preparing is fundamental and it ought to include: What are the hazard factors and how to remember them, Step by step instructions to securely lift and handle the heaps. Great lifting procedures Before lifting The lift ought to be plan. It ought to be checked whether the way for the lifting activity is clear and if not, the laborer should expel the blocks. Embracing a steady stance It is fundamental to keep up balance and the feet of the specialist ought to be separated with one of his/her leg somewhat forward. Getting a decent hold The heap ought to be as close as conceivable to the body at whatever point it is practical. Beginning in a decent stance The laborer should twist somewhat toward the beginning of the lift. Abstain from flexing the back more while lifting The laborer ought not fix his/her legs before raising the heap. Keeping the heap near the midsection The heap ought to be kept to the extent that this would be possible near the body. Abstaining from curving of the back and inclining sideways The shoulders should confront a similar heading of the hips and they ought to be at a similar level. Keeping the head up After the heap has been made sure about, the laborer should look forward and not down. Smooth development So as to keep control and limit danger of injury, twitching and grabbing of the heap ought to be maintained a strategic distance from. Abstain from lifting loads that are excessively overwhelming Laborers ought to in every case securely lift the heaps inside their ability and help from a collaborator can be utilized to securely lift a substantial burden. Modifying the heap after it has been put down It is essential to place the heap down first at that point move it in the right position. Clinical reconnaissance Clinical reconnaissance ought to be done as it takes into account the early recognitions of conditions which can effectsly affect the strength of the laborers. Ventilation Cutting office Suggestions for the issues which have been recognized in the cutting office concerning the hardware or errand, exercises or procedures are as per the following: Stacking the spreading machine Here preparing in great lifting and manual dealing with methods are essential as it will show the laborers how to appropriately lift the textures onto the floor level to put it onto the spreading machine to maintain a strategic distance from danger of wounds. Different arrangements could be: Lessen the heaviness of the texture being lifted and, Have at least two individuals to lift the textures. Spreading the texture Spreading of the texture ought to be finished by at any rate two laborers, who are confronting each other at the far edge of the tables. This limits selection of cumbersome stances and long reaches. Likewise laborers ought to be urged to take small scale breaks. Cutting the texture The spreading table ought to be set at a decent working tallness in order to improve back and shoulder act which will bring about the specialist receiving a superior stance. Supplant the handle of the electric shaper or the shaper itself if conceivable, with a customizable handle in order to improve wrist act. The texture ought not be cut from just 1 side of the table; it ought to be cut from the two sides of the table in order to stay away from long reaches. Small scale breaks ought to be taken. Arranging the cut pieces Abstain from stuffing of the containers. Utilization of littler containers to encourage lifting and dealing with. Have two people to convey the containers on the off chance that they are overwhelming Preparing in great lifting procedures. Get together division Proposals for the issues which have been distinguished in the gathering division concerning the hardware or errand, exercises or procedures are as per the following: Gracefully and expulsion of garments Littler boxes ought to be put at a sufficient stature to permit simple holds. The tables on which the materials are set ought to be of a similar stature of the sewing table. The tables ought to be sufficiently huge to contain the garments and they should be steady. Sewing table Stature The sewing table ought to be movable with the goal that the laborers can change the stature at their elbow level, which is the most satisfactory. Size and shape The bigger tables can be custom-made to make them littler so as to permit conveyance and gracefully of materials simpler. Likewise for little tables, an expansion can be set on it in order to enlarge its size. Raised edges can likewise be put on the table to keep materials from falling. Edge Tilting the table by 100 t0 250 towards the administrator can improve perceivability and forestalls the laborer to embrace poor neck pose. Seat As it was discovered during the examination, the seats are sufficiently bad. Seats with the accompanying highlights ought to be purchased: Flexibility The seat stature ought to be customizable Seat tallness †this ought to be effectively movable and it ought to have the option to be acclimated to the stature of the administrator who will utilize it. Seat width and profundity †it ought to be wide and profound enough with the goal that the clients are agreeable and the seat should suit the most brief and tallest clients Seat material †There ought to be sufficient cushioning of the material on the seat and back of the seat so it is agreeable for the client to sit for extensive stretch of times. Backrest â€It should bolster the back and lower back and it ought to be movable in point and stature. Arm rest †it ought to be of sufficient size to such an extent that it is sufficiently enormous to help the lower arms however little enough so they don't meddle with the situation of the seat. Foot pedals The foot pedals ought to be altered with the goal that they are at a similar point and position to permit great stance. Hand devices Hand apparatuses, for example, scissors of various and satisfactory size ought to be given. Work association The sewing machine administrators could be given the opportunity to proceed to get the bits of materials that they have to deal with. Squeezing division Proposals for the issues which have been distinguished in the squeezing division concerning the gear or undertaking, exercises or procedures are as per the following: Working stature The working stature ought to be flexible as a fitting tallness empowers the laborer to work with his/her in an upstanding position and their shoulders loose. Floor surface Hostile to weariness mats ought to be set wherever in the squeezing office region. Foot pedals The foot pedals ought to be close or even with the floor. Completing division Proposals for the issues which have been recognized in the completing office concerning the hardware or assignment, exercises or procedures are as per the following: Seat As it was discovered during the examination, the seats are sufficiently bad. Seats with the accompanying highlights ought to be purchased: Movability The seat stature ought to be flexible Seat stature †this ought to be effectively movable and it ought to have the option to be acclimated to the tallness of the administrator who will utilize it. Se

Debt-Free

Debt-Free I am standing in line at my favorite cafe, surrounded by smells and sounds. An uptempo milieu of acoustic guitar and tambourine is occupying the atmosphere around me, an Andy Davis tune, and Im singing alongâ€"It’s a goooo-oood lifeâ€"like a tone-deaf idiot, missing every-other note, mumbling the words I dont know while looking out the large window to my left, staring into the blankness of the morning. Its the first week of spring, but Missoula has yet to receive the memo. Everything outside is blanketed white, so clean and absolute. I smell coffee. The smell alone is a near-religious experience. The cafes manager, Jerod, is perched behind a large, shiny espresso machine, manning the military-grade controls, pulling and twisting levers and knobs at precise intervals as the mammoth appliance emits the grinding and whisping sounds associated with good coffee. I imagine Jerod has more than one engineering degree. The whole scene is  impressive in the way a kid breakdancing on the street is impressive; its completely foreign to me, but Im mesmerized. How could you not be? Peoples faces change, visibly brighten, when they enter the cafes main room, kicking snow from their boots and brushing melted flakes from their parkas. Their postures autocorrect under the high ceilings; the average height of each patron seems to increase at least half an inch as they stand in line, bathed in natural light and coffee aroma. Jerod makes the best Americanos in Montanaâ€"the best. Behind the machine, hes wearing a three-piece suit and a contemplative look that says hes serious about his coffee but somehow simultaneously not so serious that he doesnt know how to have fun. If I tried to affect the same expression, the customers behind me would surely call 911, thinking I was having a mild stroke, but Jerod pulls it off with cool confidence, a professional among professionals, joyed by his labors. Its my turn to order: Americano, black. The dark-haired girl at the register is wearing a smile Id like to frame. Shes intimidatingly attractive, and so I fumble for something clever to say when she asks me how Im doing. But Ive got nothing, no wordsâ€"my mouth, a swordless sheath. I pull out my wallet to pay, peeling a few singles from my thin stack. I dont even consider using my credit cardâ€"not anymore at least. The snow keeps calm everything outside the windows, huge flakes like wet chips of white paint peeling off the sky. Cashâ€"not a debit card, but cold hard cashâ€"is the only currency I use these days; its harder to part with, makes me cerebrate over each purchase. Every dollar I let go of is like letting go of $1 of my freedom. I place a dollar in the jar labeled tipping is sexy and smile at the brunette. But I havent always been this way. (Well, Ive always smiled at brunettes, but I havent always been responsible with money.) Ill be 32 in a few months, and for the first time in my adult life, Im free of debt. Thats a weird thing for me to be able say. You see, from the time I was 18â€"when Chase Bank granted me my first line of credit, a MasterCard with a $5,000 limit, which wouldve made any poor kid from Ohio salivateâ€"until last month, nearly 14 years later, Ive had some sort of debt. As my twenties mounted, so did my tab with the creditors. First it was just that one credit card, and then, when that one was maxed out, it was two. And then three. Visa, MasterCard,  even Discover. (American Express wasnt irresponsible enough to grant me a line of credit, not for several years at least.) But thats OK, I was successful, so I could afford it, right? Fresh out of highschool, I skipped the whole college route and had instead found a sales job that let me work six, sometimes seven, days a week, 10â€"12 hours a day. I wasnt great at it, but I learned how to get better. By age 19 I was making $50,000 a year. But I was spending $65k. Unfortunately, I was never great at math. Perhaps I shouldve financed a calculator before maxing out half-a-dozen cards. I celebrated my first big promotion at age 22 the same way I imagined anyone would: I built a house in the suburbs, financed with 0% down. Everything in my culture reaffirmed this decision, even told me I was making a solid investment (this was five years before the housing crash). It wasnt just any old house, though; it was an oversized, two-story monstrosity, complete with three bedrooms, two livingrooms, and a full-size basement (the ping-pong table I never used came later, also financed). There was even a white picket fence. I shit you not. Soon after building the house, I married a wonderful woman. But I was so hyper-focused on my supposedly impressive career that I hardly remember the ceremony. I know it rained that day, and that my bride was beautiful, and I remember fleeing to Mexico for our (financed) honeymoon after the wedding, but I cant recall much else. When we returned, I got back to work, filling our two-car garage with luxury cars and our new home with fancy furniture and appliances, stacking debt on top of more debt in the process. I was on the fast track toward the American Dream, just a few years ahead of my contemporaries, who were all spending likewise, albeit five-or-so years later, in their late twenties. But I was ahead of the curve, an exception, right? At 28, a decade into my accumulation, I was forced to look around at all the stuff surrounding me. It was everywhere. My house was full of things Id purchased in an attempt to find happiness. Each item had brought with it a twinge of excitement at the check-out line, but the thrill always waned shortly after each purchase, and by the time the credit-card statements arrived, I was overwhelmed with guilt, a strange kind of buyers remorse. And so Id do it all over again, soaking in the suds of consumptionâ€"lather, rinse, repeatâ€"in search of something that resembled happiness, an elusive concept that got farther and farther away the more I chased it. Eventually, happiness was just a speck on the horizon, way off in the distance. Turns out that Id been running as fast as I could in the wrong direction. Oops. The stuff wasnt doing its job; it wasnt making me happy. In fact, the opposite was true: instead of happiness, I was faced with stress and discontent and anxiety. And massive, crippling debt. And, eventually, depression. I no longer had time for a life outside of work, often laboring 70â€"80 a week just to pay for the stuff that wasnt making me happy. I didnt have time for anything I wanted to do: no time to write, no time to read, no time to relax, no time for my closest relationships. I didnt even have time to have a cup of coffee with a friend, to listen to their stories. I realized that I didnt control my time, and thus I didnt control my own life. It was a shocking realization. What I did with that revelation, however, is much more important than the revelation itself. Faced with epiphany, I turned around and started walkingâ€"not runningâ€"in the right direction. I spent two years living under new spending standards, what I refer to as my Ramen Noodles Meal Plan, slashing all my nonessential wants and likes along the way: I sold the big house (at a significant post-crash loss) and moved into a small apartment; I paid off my car and kept driving it without considering a new one; I cut up the credit cards and started paying for everything with cash; and I bought only the things I needed. Ultimately, I discovered that I needed far less than Id thought I did. For the first time in my life, I could see happiness getting closer and closer as I walked away from the stuff and toward real happiness. My friends and family started noticing my changed demeanor, too. Over time, life was calmer, less stressed, simpler. I spent time paying off debt, incrementally, month by month, bill by bill, getting rid of everything superfluous so I could be less tied to my income, less tied to a job that ate all my time. I didnt simply jump up and quit my job, though. That wouldve been stupid. Instead, it was a long road. It took two laser-focused years to eliminate 80% of my debt, and after I left my career as I approached age 30, I took a sizable pay cut, but I still focused on paying down the debt, spending two years slapping around that remaining 20%, never losing sight of the freedom that hid behind it. Today Im seated at a table by the window, sipping an Americano that I paid for with cash, thumbing through pages of the Missoulian (also paid for with cash). I glance up from the pages periodically, watching the white streets become enveloped by more white. Its like the opposite of a Hitchcock film out there, all hope and promise, a beautiful cleansing. Eventually I see Ryan enter the cafes doors, a huge, goofy grin on this face, snow caked to his eyebrows, his hair untamed. He looks like he has a good story to tell. Im waiting to hear it. Ive got the time. Debt-Free is an excerpt from  Everything That Remains. You May Also Enjoy How to Start a Successful Blog Today Learn how to start a blog in less than an hour. Follow the step-by-step instructions we used when starting our blog, which now has reached more than 20 million people. Creating this blog is one of the best decisions Ryan and I ever made. After all, our blog is how we earn a living. More important, it's how we add value to other people's lives. Read more 30-Day Minimalism Game Let's play a simple game together. We call it the 30-Day Minimalism Game. Find a friend, family member, or coworker who's willing to minimize their stuff with you next month. Read more 11 Ways to Write Better We are all writers now. Whether you write books, blog posts, emails, Instagram captions, or text messages, you are a writer. No matter your preferred medium, here are a few tips to help you write more effectively. Read more Subscribe to The Minimalists via email.

The Water Sustainability Act - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2134 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Review Level High school Did you like this example? The Future of Sustainable Protection of Surface and Groundwater; The Water Sustainability Act. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Water Sustainability Act" essay for you Create order Introduction: The Water Sustainability Act is a new law that will be replacing the current Water Act that was made in 1909. The water act has now been outdated pertaining to our water needs, and our growing populations. The Water Sustainability Act will bring B.C. water laws into the 21st century. The water Sustainability Act will update the current laws from the Water Act, and also bring new policies into consideration, an example of this would be treating groundwater and surface water as one resource and protecting them both. The seven key areas that will be included in the Water Sustainability Act include: (A Water Sustainability Act For B.C., 2014, October) Protect stream health and aquatic environments Consider water in land use decisions Regulate and protect groundwater Regulate water use during times of scarcity Improve security, water use, efficiency and conservation Measure and report large scale water use Provide for a range of governance approaches These improvements to the Water Act will insure that we are protecting are water so that we can be sustainable in the future. By protection the stream health and aquatic environments it prevents the dumping of wastes and pollutants. It also will protect streams from droughts. If the amount of water in a stream or river is effecting the aquatic life, there will be protection orders put out to stop any water being taken out of the stream or river, and anything that is under the influence of it. Another part of the act will be considering water in land use decisions. This is mainly focusing on sustainable development. The water on this planet will be protected and thought of before any development pertains near a water source. This will happen because new water objectives will be defined, and there will be more decision making towards a long-term health of aquatic environments, streams, rivers and any body of water. In this act the groundwater will also be protected, which is the first time in history that groundwater has been treated as a source water in British Columbia. Protection of groundwater will include; licencing of groundwater with an exception to domestic use, improvement of knowledge on the aquifers and wells, and updating all drilling requirements. These rules will improve our groundwater in quality and quantity because it will show how much groundwater is being used, how much groundwater every aquifer and well can give while still being sustainable, and by updating the drill requirements it protects from contamination of groundwater while improving the treatment process following source groundwater. The next point of the Water Sustainability Act is protecting water sources during scarcity. This will allow for adequate water needs for humans, but will also allow temporary restrictions to protect the quantity of water and the aquatic life that lives in it. By doing this every water source will always have adequate amounts for aquatic life as well as h umans. The Water Sustainability Act will also improve security, water use, efficiency and conservation. Which allows for all water licences to be reviewed every 30 years, makes sure that all water users are using the water beneficially and in a conserving way. By measuring water uses, all big water users must report how much they use, this allows for people to have a set amount they are allowed to use, and they can pay a set amount for the water. This stops companies coming to British Columbia, taking our water in large amounts for free, and then selling it back to us. The last point of the Water Sustainability Act is enabling government approaches. This will allow for other agencies other the government to partake in water sustainability. Which will allow the public to have more say what they think is sustainable for our water. (A Water Sustainability Act For B.C., 2014, October) Even though every part of the Water Sustainability Act is important to the conservation, protection and sustainability of our water; the focus of this paper will be on the protection of streams and aquatic ecosystems, regulating water during scarcity and groundwater protection. Regulations: In the Water Sustainability Act, the protection of our streams and aquatic ecosystems is provided. British Columbians had shown extreme support measures to protect stream health. This includes lakes, rivers, creeks and all bodies of water. (A Water Sustainability Act For B.C., 2014, October) The Water Sustainability Act protects stream and aquatic health by: (A Water Sustainability Act For B.C., 2014, October) Environmental thresholds are considered when new allocations to water are made. This applies to surface water and ground water except in low-risk situations. Expanding on roles when dumping debris that currently exists in the Fish Protection Act. This includes debris like human and animal wastes, pesticides and fertilizers Section 15 of the Water Sustainability Act is focused on environmental flow needs. In this section it is mentioned that the decision maker must consider flow needs of a stream in new constructions or projects. In these projects, assessments must be done, and the decision maker will then determine if this project will continue based on the effects on the stream or body of water. (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) In section 86 of the Water Sustainability Act, Declarations of significant water shortages are protected. It stated that if there are one or more streams that are at high-risk of critical environmental flow thresholds, the minister will make an order protecting the current flows of the stream, and any bodies of water that come in contact with the high-risk stream. These orders that are made cannot be longer than 90 days. Once this order has expired, the minister may make another order and asses if the stream or body of water is still high-risk or not. (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Section 46 prohibits the introduction of foreign matter into a stream. It includes anyone introducing, or someone allowing anyone else to introduce foreign matter such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“debris, refuse, human and animal waste, pesticides, fertilizers, contaminants or any other matter or substance into or adjacent to a stream. These foreign substances must not be added where it will cause significant adverse impact to any of the following: (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Stream or stream channel Existing uses of water from a stream Property or riparian owners of the stream An aquifer that is hydraulically connected to the stream or the existing uses of the water from an aquifer Aquatic ecosystem of a stream These practices do not apply to a forest practice or prescribed activity, practice or substance. Section 56 provides rules on decommissioning or deactivating wells. Wells are considered to be in service when they are used on a regular basis, or when it is considered a backup supply. A well is considered out of service when it hasnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t been used for a period of time or has prescribed circumstances. When a well isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t in service it must be deactivated or decommissioned under section 46 of the Water Sustainability Act. (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Some definitions to understand that are stated in the Water Sustainability Act, Stream Health protection section retrieved from Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29; include: Aquatic ecosystem- means living organisms and their life processes dependent on the natural environment of a stream. Critical environment flow threshold- meaning the volume of water flow below significant or irreversible harm to aquatic ecosystem of a stream is likely to occur. Environmental flow needs- means the volume and timing of water flow required for proper functioning of the aquatic ecosystem. In the Water Sustainability Act, groundwater will be regulated and protected. This is important because one fourth of people rely on groundwater for drinking supply, and or industrial uses. The current Water Act does not regulate groundwater. This means that anyone can accesses our groundwater without permission from the government, and free of charge. The Water Sustainability Act will address this issue by regulating our groundwater as we regulate our surface water. Groundwater users will have to hold a licence and be charged an annual fee for the use of the groundwater. The only exception of this rule is for domestic uses, as long as the aquifer is not in high demand. This act will also collect data on usages and information from owners and well users to improve the knowledge of the aquifer, and its water availability. This rule will help us with future water allocations. (A Water Sustainability Act For B.C., 2014, October) Section 83 of the Water Sustainability Act will put laws and restrictions on groundwater activity by prohibiting: (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Construction of Wells Installing well pumps Conducting flow tests Performing another activity in relation to a well or groundwater This section only applies if it poses a threat under the Water Sustainability Act or if the person doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t hold a drilling authorization. A comptroller or water manager mat amend or cancel well drilling if there is high risk situations. (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Section 130 has regulations respecting groundwater and groundwater works. This regulates artificial openings in the ground that may not be classified as a well, but are still under the direct influence of groundwater or an aquifer. Well drillers and pump installers are protected and regulated by this section under the Water Sustainability Act with respect to section 83. Some other requirements, procedures, standards and codes with respect to groundwater include: (Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act, 2014, April 29) Siting wells Construction of wells Installation of well pumps Designing, testing, operating, disinfecting, flood proofing, capping or covering of wells Or any other activities that pertain to groundwater Conclusion: The Water Sustainability Act has many advantages, and few disadvantages. The improvements that have been made under this act can be summed up by; protecting our aquatic environment will be protects by regulating debris dumped in, or around a stream river, or where aquatic life can be effected by the dumping. These debris include human waste, animal waste, pesticides and fertilizers. The environmental flow will also be protected by preventing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“significant or irreversible harm to the aquatic systemsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Another advantage that the Water Sustainability Act has brought in would be water is now regulated during scarcity. This will protect water quantity with respect to human needs and aquatic lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s health. The final version of the Water Sustainability Act will obligate the decision maker to determine what flows should be in a certain river or stream, and then try to reach that goal. This is a change in the perspective of our water uses because b efore the government thought that being right on the limit was healthy, this act now shows that instead of pushing our water uses to the limit, we should be trying to regain what we had before. The water flows will also be restricted if the stream is labeled as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sensitiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . This is because the stream is not as protected as it should be, so to get the stream back to the health it was there will be more ruled forming around these streams, rivers and bodies of water. Last but not least the regulation of groundwater, precise mechanisms for giving licences to ground water, which will in time allow development under these licences and allow the governments to have more time to discuss water development with water users, communities, and First Nations people. This will insure that no unsustainable water decisions will be made. (Gage, A, n.d.) The Water Sustainability Act is the future of our water protection ways, as said by the West Coast Environmental Law group; (Gage, A, n.d.) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Water, and how we treat our water, is one of those fundamental issues that touches on so much of who we are, what we do, and how we build our economy. A weak Water Sustainability Act could fail to deal with current unsustainable and inefficient water use, and could lock in these problems for years to come. A strong Act could address past over-use, and wasteful use, of water and protect drinking water and fish from over-use, poor oil and gas, logging or mining practices, and other threats.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Gage, A, n.d.) Water is incapable of protecting its health, as humans, water is our future. The Water Sustainability Act will protect any aspect of our water that hasnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t been protected already, and is allowing us as a world to move forward in protection our future, with respect to sustainable development. (Gage, A, n.d.) References: A Water Sustainability Act For B.C. (2014, October 1). Retrieved April 6, 2015, from https://engage.gov.bc.ca/watersustainabilityact/files/2013/10/WSA_overview_web.pdf Bill 18 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  2014: Water Sustainability Act. (2014, April 29). Retrieved April 6, 2015, from https://leg.bc.ca/40th2nd/3rd_read/gov18-3.htm#section86 Gage, A. (n.d.). West Coast Environmental Law. Retrieved April 6, 2015, from https://wcel.org/resources/environmental-law-alert/strengths-and-weaknesses-new-water-sustainability-act 1

Legality And The Morality Of Insider Trading Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1841 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Is insider trading ethical? Is insider trading illegal? Insider Trading phenomena is controversial and is bringing a lot of discussion around itself. Some of the opponents claim that its both not ethical and legal to use information, which is not putted into public knowledge, while other opponents argue that insider trading increases market efficiency and does not any hurt to anybody. During this paper I will try to bring topic closer to the reader by providing the reasoning of both parties involved in discussion. What Insider Trading states for? Who is an insider trader? It is hard to define insider trading due to complexity of the topic, however the most common definition stands for: Insider trading is illegal when transactions like buying or selling stocks, bounds or other securities are based on information that is not available to the general public. In other words, the inside information which is used by inside traders to influence their decisions before publishing this information to public knowledge, thus giving them an edge in making the best deals, whether to buy or to sell. This competitive advantage according to the law is illegal and according to some scholar it unethical. Insider informer can take any forms. One can be a member of a company and has stock in the company, and finds out that your company is going publicly bankrupt the next day. Or, quite the opposite, if a business was to be buying out a major competitor, knowing that information before it was publicly announced would also be insider information. Paying someone to be a n informant from a company is also considered as insider information and again is illegal. Insider traders are usually defined as companys officers, directors and any beneficial owners of more than ten percent of the companys equity securities. However, American law is not limiting anti insider trading law only to these people. In the understanding of this law, any person who trades shares based on material non-public information in violation of some duty of trust. This duty may be imputed; for example, in many jurisdictions, in cases of where a corporate insider tips a friend about non-public information likely to have an effect on the companys share price, the duty the corporate insider owes the company is now imputed to the friend and the friend violates a duty to the company if he or she trades on the basis of this information. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Legality And The Morality Of Insider Trading Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Insider trading legal aspects. Insider trading was not always illegal. First regulation in the USA appeared only in 1929 when the USA Congress passed the laws limiting insider-trading acts, and created the Securities and Exchange Commission to enhance market oversight. Since that time much of the development of insider trading law has resulted from court decisions. Nevertheless there is still a legal dilemma about insider trading as for example: the law prohibits these insiders from trading on this information until the information is made public. But even then the definition of what is made public may not be what one thinks. Lets assume that a person working for a company on a proposed merger with another company happens to mention it to a friend who works for a newspaper or news broadcaster who then publishes the information. Has it then become public such that everyone is now free to trade in the securities? No. There are also strict interpretations on this subject. The information has become public when the company officially publishes the information by filing it officially with the appropriate authorities, meaning the Ministry of Finance. The other alternative is for the company, itself, to arrange its publication in two public media such as newspapers, TV broadcasts, etc. Even then, individual has to wait until 12 hours after it is made public. America has been a pioneer in criminalizing insider trading, but nowadays regulations, which prohibit this phenomenon, are present in law legislation in most of the countries all over the word. As example: In the UK, the relevant laws are the Criminal Justice Act 1993 Part V Schedule 1 and the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, which defines an offence of Market Abuse.  [1]  Just like in American law, it is also illegal to fail to trade based on inside information. The principle is that it is illegal to trade on the basis of market-sensitive information that is not generally known. No relationship to the issuer of the security is required; all that is required is that the guilty party traded (or caused trading) whilst having inside information.  [2]  In comparison in Japan first law against insider trading appeared in 1988 but even now as Roderick Seeman claims that: many Japanese do not understand why this is illegal. Indeed, previously it was regarded as common sense to make a profit from your knowledge.  [3] Insider trading Ethical Dilemma. Even with existing laws and regulations, ethical dilemmas still exist and the laws are sometimes vague. When we analyze insider-trading phenomena, we can ask ourselves the question what is wrong in taking good luck and opportunity to advance in business and profit? I would answer NOTHING, except the fact that it is an illegal act. That is why some economists and authorized scholars, like Henry Manne, Milton Friedman, Thomas Sowell, Daniel Fischel, Frank H. Easterbrook argues that laws, which makes insider trading illegal should be cancelled.  [4]  They claim that insider trading based on non-public information benefits investors, as well, by more quickly introducing new information into the market and in this way speeds up market efficiency, which is a benefit for all parties. Moreover according to some economist such control over the stock market is too much government regulation in the stock market, and in same way is harmful to capitalism. Henry Mann, argues that the legi slation has not stopped insider trading from happening, and that legalizing it is a sensible solution to the improper regulation that ultimately hurts the market. He also claims that if insider trading is allowed, it will allow stocks to show its actual worth, rather than have the price tempered by waiting for the information to go public.  Ã‚  [5]  Another great economist Milton Friedman, laureate of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, said: You want more insider trading, not less. You want to give the people most likely to have knowledge about deficiencies of the company an incentive to make the public aware of that. Friedman did not believe that the trader should be required to make his trade known to the public, because the buying or selling pressure itself is information for the market.  [6] This brings me to another critical issue. Does the fact of possessing information bring necessary any value? No, because to act on any piece of information requires interpr etation of that information, which in turn requires a large number of other pieces of information. Lets imagine that for example Apple announced that that its Q4 profits have raised by 45 percent. This doesnt really tell anyone how to perform it in the market for Apple securities, whether to buy or sell. This requires additional general knowledge about IT market, the profits of other IT companies and Apple main competitors future actions plan and so on. Only if we add to the Apple announcement information about Microsofts profits, which let says, could have raised by 100 percent, we can draw father conclusions. So any single piece of information about a company, however critical it may be to that company and its future, does not in itself provide clear instruction to the investor. Action requires interpretation, which requires wider knowledge. Many market theorists have argued, that insider trading enhances market efficiency, smoothes price volatility and reduces the likelihood o f price shocks arising from unexpected events.  [7]  On the other hand, when we think about illegal aspect of these phenomena it is hard to not agree that providing information which are not public to the everyone knowledge introduce the problem of the fairness. Fairness which in these case would hold that in a fair market, all parties have equal access to information relevant to asset valuation, but entitled to nothing more.  [8]  So in this situation insider trading is perceived as an unfair act, it causes some injury to specific traders or potential traders, or because it causes investors as a whole to lose confidence in the securities markets. To illustrate, assume that insiders are aware of negative information regarding Alpha Corporation that, if disclosed, would cause the current per share market price of Alpha stock to drop from $25 per share to $20 per share. Prior to public release of the information, Alpha insiders sell Alpha stock on the basis of this negative in formation, reducing Alphas price to $23 per share. Some outsiders will undoubtedly sell at $23 and could thus legitimately claim to be $2 per share poorer than they would have been absent insider trading. A corresponding number of investors, however, will purchase at the more correct price of $23 per share, making them better off than they would have been in the absence of insider trading. Although the $23 per share price is higher than the $20 per share price that would have prevailed if the insiders had been forced to reveal their secret information prior to trading, this harm is attributable to the lack of a general duty to disclose material non-public information under the federal securities laws and not to insider trading.  Ã‚  [9] This example touches another critical issue in the insider trading discussion like stock price manipulation phenomena. We can imagine the situation where insider traders manipulate investors by releasing fails information about company in o rder to move market prices away from their fair values and take financial benefit from it. As the last, insider trading also violates the duty of trust or confidentiality that one individual or business entity owes to another. This causes loss in confidence in the securities markets. People fear that insider traders regularly take benefit at their expense, which lead to decrease people in willingness to invest. In this case raising new capital would be more costly for companies whose securities were harmed by insider trading. Hence, all else being equal, insider trading makes it harder for companies to raise money when opportunities to undertake new projects arise. Conclusion For sure there are no clear and easy answers to the question of regulating insider trading. Insider trading may have benefits for both the company and the capital market under certain conditions. As was presented above insider trading can positively influence the market effectivness Henry Manne Insider Trading and the Stock Market. However, the arguments against regulation show a certain ambiguity and doubts of regulators are proven. Even though scholars often argue that fairness considerations do not carry much weight, the personal feelings of the individual investor and his confidence in the integrity of securities markets must be taken into account. Although insider trading can have positive effects for the firm and its wealth, as the arguments of deregulators show, it also bears several severe risks. The costs seem to outweigh the benefits.  [10]  Therefore, it is correct to prohibit insider trading by a mandatory regulation.

The Yankee Stadium’s History Free Essays

Any discussion of the history of New York City without a history of the New York Yankees would be like describing Pavarotti without mentioning his voice. And any discussion of the Yankees without including Yankee Stadium would be farcical. And when you get right down to the nitty-gritty of historical realities encompassing the Yankees and Yankee Stadium you have to include Babe Ruth. We will write a custom essay sample on The Yankee Stadium’s History or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Babe, the â€Å"Bambino,† the â€Å"Sultan of Swat,† was the reason the Yankees built Yankee Stadium, and that is why they call it â€Å"The House That Ruth Built.† The Yankees are beyond any reasonable doubt the premier team in Major League Baseball. They have been in the World Series 39 times since the American League was fashioned in 1900 – and they have won 26 of them. The teams tied for second most World Series Championships are the Cardinals and Athletics with 9. The Yankees have been in New York since 1903; previously they were in Baltimore known as the Baltimore Orioles. They started out in New York as the Highlanders, playing at Hilltop Park (today, the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center sits where Hilltop Park was located). They played in the Polo Grounds (sharing it with its home team, the National League New York Giants) from 1913 to 1920. The Yankees became popularly known as the â€Å"Yankees† around 1904; and when the New York Herald reported on April 15, 1906, â€Å"Yankees win opening game from Boston, 2-1,† it was more or less official they were no longer the Highlanders. Meanwhile, tracing the origins of Yankee Stadium properly includes a brief recounting of how Babe Ruth got to the Yankees; he was the spark that lit the fire that put Yankee Stadium in the Bronx. By 1919, a strong rivalry had existed between the Boston Red Sox and the Yankees for several years. A young Boston pitcher who was also an unbelievable slugger, Babe Ruth, hammered the Yankees on many occasions, including Opening Day at the Polo Grounds on April 23, 1919. According to The New York Times (4/24/1919), â€Å"Babe Ruth won the game for the Red Sox in the first inning when, with Jack Berry on first base, he slammed out a lucky home run†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Final score, Red Sox 10, Yanks 0. There had been some doubt as to whether the phenomenal Ruth would even play for Boston in 1919; Ruth had been a hold-out in the spring, following a sensational season as a pitcher and slugger, and a magnificent World Series for Boston in 1918, in which he won two games (hurling 13 scoreless innings in one game) and gave Boston power at the plate. It was to be Boston’s last World Series victory until 2004. In the spring of 1919, Ruth was holding out for $15,000 a year, according to a New York Times story (3/19/1919): â€Å"Ruth†¦wants $15,000 for one year or will sign a contract calling for $10,000 a year for three years.† The headline in The New York Times on December 27, 1919 read, â€Å"Ruth Talks Of Retiring†; the story said Ruth is â€Å"‘through with major league baseball’ unless the management of the Boston American league Club is prepared to meet his demand for $20,000 a year.† The New York Times reported on March 22, 1919, that â€Å"Babe Ruth Finally Signs with Boston,† for a reported $27,000 for three years. Boston owner Harry H. Frazee’s previous best offer had been $8,500, the Times reported. Contrasted with today’s dollar value $27,000 would be worth around $540,000; and even though $27,000 doesn’t sound like much compared to the $2.5 million original cost of building Yankee Stadium – or to the salaries today’s players draw. (To wit, Derek Jeter’s 2003 salary was around $15,000,000; he came to the plate 482 times; do the math and see Jeter earned around $30,000 per at-bat). But to the average New Yorker in 1920, Ruth’s salary was a huge quantity of money. Hundreds of thousands of American boys were fighting in Europe in WWI (thousands of them dying), and 650,000 Americans had died recently due the influenza epidemic. Times were rough, to say the least. Meantime, after Ruth clubbed 29 homers in 1919, an October 12th Times article hailed him as the â€Å"mastodonic mauler†; New York obviously was in awe of this superstar. And then, to the great surprise of Gotham, the one of the biggest sports events of the century hit the headlines of The New York Times with the clout of a Ruthian grand slam (1/6/1920): â€Å"Ruth Bought by New York Americans For $125,000, Highest Price in Baseball Annals.† The story reported that Ruth’s acquisition gave the Yankees â€Å"the hard-hitting outfielder long desired.† After coming to terms with the Yankees, for $40,000 on a two-year deal, the Yankee owner Colonel Jacob Ruppert soon took out a $150,000 insurance policy on the Babe, unprecedented at that time. And interestingly exactly one year to the day after the Times story hailing Ruth’s arrival in New York, the Times headline (2/6/1921) rang: â€Å"Yankees To Build Stadium In Bronx.† In the article, Yankee owners Colonels Jacob Ruppert and Tillinghast L. Huston announced they had purchased 10 acres â€Å"on the east bank of the Harlem River,† between 157th and 101st Streets, from the estate of the late William Waldorf Astor. â€Å"On this terrain there will be erected a huge stadium, which will surpass in seating capacity any structure hitherto built for the accommodation of lovers of baseball,† the Times’ article continued, in typical dramatic style, albeit there was no byline so the author was unknown. Excavation was to begin â€Å"in a few weeks and building will be expedited by every means known to human effort,† the article explained. The Yankees did not announce what they paid for the ten acres, but the Times had it â€Å"on good authority† the tab was $500,000, and the estimated cost of the projected stadium was $2 million. The â€Å"running time from Forth-second Street by subway is only about 16 minutes,† the story continued, and by â€Å"elevated train it will take about 2 minutes more to reach the Yankee’s stadium than is necessary to get to the Polo Grounds.† The process of street-closings â€Å"will offer no obstacles,† the Times explained; and the stadium was projected to be â€Å"triple-decked,† which was made necessary â€Å"by the expectation of even greater patronage than that of the last season.† The obvious reference was to the fact that Babe Ruth is not only the greatest home run hitter in the game, but he was the biggest box office draw in all entertainment venues at that time. Prior to the decision to build the stadium on its present site, the Times (2/6/1921) reported that â€Å"until a few days† prior to February 5, 1921, Yankee owners â€Å"were inclined to favor the site of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, between 136th and 138th streets, near Broadway.† The stadium was to hold 75,000 fans eventually, though at first it would only hold 50,000 (5,000 of them bleacher benches); yet â€Å"when the cost of building materials becomes more nearly normal,† the Times explained, the capacity will be increased to the higher figure. This â€Å"massive and most attractive structure has been designed to adorn the new playing field of Babe Ruth and his pals,† the story went on. â€Å"Concrete and steel of the finest quality available will be used†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Before any building could begin, and before contractors were to be hired to do the building, the approval from City Hall had to be obtained. And while New York City Mayor John F. Hylan first hedged on the decision for the city to â€Å"release its interest in the bed of Cromwell Avenue† in the Bronx, which ran directly through the site, he eventually signed off on the deal. However, the sub-headline on March 18, 1923, in the Times badgered the mayor a bit by shouting that â€Å"Mayor Hylan Holds Up Decision on closing of Street Running Through Site.† â€Å"I am not going to put my signature on the official document,† the mayor said in the Times, â€Å"until I find out whether everything is regular.† The â€Å"Sinking Fund Commission† had already signed off on the street’s demolishment, and worried that the mayor’s delay â€Å"might prevent the Yankees from playing in their new stadium in 1923,† the article indicated. Meantime, within a couple weeks, the mayor did sign off on the closing of two streets, which â€Å"came as a personal triumph for colonel Jacob Ruppert, President of the Yankees, who had labored for more than a year to obtain the necessary permission for the closing of the streets,† the Times reported in late March, 1922. [Note: the dates on the New York Times’ archival documents do not always reflect the precise date of publication.] Not only did New York political bureaucracies have to be hurdled by Ruppert, the Astor family lived in England, and since it was their property that was the site used for the stadium, their consent was imperative. After official approval, the Times’ headline â€Å"Yankees Call For Bids on Stadium† had a little editorial slant in the sub-headline, â€Å"If Contractor Are Rational In Prices Work Will Begin at Earliest Possible Date.† The date on this article can’t be correct (it is 1/4/1922), so it must have been in late February. â€Å"Excavation, grading, masonry, sewers and downspouts, reinforced concrete, lathing and plastering, ornamental metal work, tile work, terrazzo floors, carpentry, toilets, roofing, sheet metal, steel sash, painting and wood bleachers† all went out to bid, the Times reported. And it did seem like there was a limited amount of capital available for the huge project, because the newspaper article mentioned that bids â€Å"for the steel work have already been obtained,† and â€Å"they were fairly satisfactory†¦ranging from much below the prices of a year or two ago, but rather higher than had been hoped by the men who have to put up the money for this project.† The colonel did not plan to â€Å"get what they considered the worst of it financially† in case the bids â€Å"proved to be beyond the bounds of reason,† the story explained. Ground was to be broken around the first of March. The White Construction Company of 95 Madison Avenue was selected as contractor of the stadium, the Times reported shortly after receiving city permission to go ahead. Work was to begin â€Å"on what will be the greatest baseball plant in the world† within a week, and the Osborn Engineering Company of Cleveland was chosen as overseer of general construction; the stadium was projected to be completed by September first, at that time. The number of seats available for fans, which had changed several times, in this article (â€Å"Yanks Pick Firm To Build Stadium†) it was listed at 60,000. A â€Å"double shift of workmen† will be employed, and the Osborn company predicted in the Times that â€Å"it will smash all records in the matter of speed.† The actual construction of the stadium of course received a great deal of coverage in The New York Times. One story (4/1/1923) – headlined, â€Å"Yanks’ Stadium Big Engineering Task,† pointed to the massive construction effort being put forth, in order to meet an incredibly tight deadline, and listed the materials that would go into the stadium. To wit: Thirty-thousand yards of concrete (from 45,000 barrels of cement, 30,000 yards of gravel and 15,000 yards of sand); 2,500 tons of structural steel and 1,000 tons of reinforced steel; 2 million board feet of lumber for bleachers and forms; 600,000 â€Å"linear feet† of lumber for the grandstand seats; 4 miles of pipe for railings in box seats, reserved seats and bleachers; 500 tons of iron for stadium seats; and about 500 workmen were brought in to put it all together. In a story in the archival Times dated May 4, the cost of the stadium changed again, this time to $3 million, and the attendance capacity became 85,000. But all the inconsistencies notwithstanding, the Times’ story with the most pizzazz of all the archival coverage of Yankee Stadium was published April 19, 1923: â€Å"74,200 See Yankees Open New Stadium; Ruth Hits Home Run.† While 25,000 were turned away from the sold-out house, those in attendance were treated to this: â€Å"In the third inning, with two teammates on the base lines, Babe Ruth smashed a savage home run into the right field bleachers.† This shot by Ruth was made all the more dramatic because he had been quoted as saying he would give â€Å"a year of my life† to smack a round-tripper on opening day in the new stadium. The 74,200 attendance figure that was reported by the stadium was, Times’ readers learned on the 20th, â€Å"merely an estimate† by Yankees business manager Edward Barrow. In fact, only around 52,000 paid to see the game, plus several thousand were admitted with passes. But the Times – obviously feeling somewhat duped – reported that the 74,200 figures â€Å"were accepted without question and were published in hundreds of newspapers in this country and in various places around the world.† In addition to baseball, many sporting events have taken place in Yankee Stadium over the years, including: boxing matches with stars like Jack Dempsey (Muhammad Ali defeated Ken Norton on July 24, 1923); indeed over 30 championship fights have taken place at the stadium, according to the Yankees’ Web site; NFL games with the New York football Giants between 1956 and 1973; Army-Navy football games, religious conventions (including two visits by Popes). Lights were installed at the stadium in 1946, and in the winter of 1966-67, the stadium got a $1.5 million update, consisting mostly of fresh paint. Starting in 1973, the stadium was torn down almost totally, and rebuilt; during that period, the Yankees moved to Shea Stadium for two seasons. The stadium has been the playground for American sporting icons like Joe DiMaggio, Lou Gehrig, Mickey Mantle, Roger Maris, Reggie Jackson, and many more. How to cite The Yankee Stadium’s History, Essay examples

Feline leukemia virus Essay Example For Students

Feline leukemia virus Essay FELINE PANLEUKOPENIA VIRUSVirus Classification:Order:MononegaviralesFamily:ParvoviridaeSubfamily:ParvovirinaeGenus:ParvovirusSpecies:Feline panleukopenia virusAlso called feline infectious eneritis, feline distemper, and feline ataxia or incoordination. Examples of other viruses belonging to the same genus as Feline panleukopenia virus include Canine parvovirus type 2, Porcine parvovirus, Mink enteritis virus, and Raccoon enteritis virus. Virus Structure:Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) is a small (20 nm) autonomous , non -enveloped, icosahedral, single-stranded DNA virus that is approximately 5,120 nucleotides in legnth. The genome encodes for two genes which each form two proteins by alternative mRNA splicing. The non-enveloped capsid is assembled from 60 copies of a combination of the overlapping capsid proteins VP1 and VP2. The virus contains three capsid proteins. The capsids normally enter cells by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Replication of the virus in the host occurs in cells that are rapidly dividing. FPV can survive in pH ranging from 3 to 9. The virus is highly resistant to most disinfectants (ether, chloroform, acid, alcohol, and heat), but is susceptible to Clorox bleach. History and Natural Biology of Feline Panleukopenia Virus:Feline panleukopenia is endemic to cats worldwide. The virus has been identified since the early 20th century. The virus is so severe that it was referred to as cat plague in earlier times when infections worldwide nearly wiped out cat populations in certain geographic areas. Now FPV rarely occurs in domestic populations in which vaccination is routinely practiced. There is a seasonality to the occurrence of FPV that usually coincides with the production of new populations of susceptible kittens. This seasonal effect may vary according to geographic location. In the northeastern United States, most cases of FPV are seen in the summer and early fall. However, outbreaks of FPV may occur at any time of the year. It is thought that feral domestic cat populations are a natural resevior for Feline panleukopenia virus. Clinical Features and Viral Pathogenesis:All members of the cat family (Felidae) are susceptible to infection with feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), as are raccoons, and minks, in the family Procyoniclae. Three major body sytems are affected by FPV. FPV specifically depresses the white blood cells and thus the immune system of the host, it attacks the rapidly reproducing cells lining the gut, and FPV affects the reproducing cells of the cerebellum and the retina of the eye when they are in their developing stage. The system it chooses depends on the age of the cat at the time of infection. The severity of the clinical signs exhibited also depends on the cats age, and varies tremendously from case to case. Many cats show no signs of infection at all; the only method of diagnosis is the detection of FPV antibody in the blood. Mild clinical infections can be seen as a borderline drop in white blood cell count, mild temperature elevation, and slight inappetence. In a typical case of FPV, the clinical signs develop suddenly. Vomiting and severe diarrhea may develop within twenty-four hours of infection. During this time the cats temperature may elevate to 104oF or greater. Severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances occur as a result of ongoing vomiting and diarrhea. The hair coat becomes dull and there is a loss of elasticity of the skin due to severe dehydration. The lymph nodes in the abdomen become enlarged, and the digestive tract contains excessive amounts of gas and liquid. By this time the cats abdomen is painful, and touching it will elicit a pain response. The mortality rate in an outbreak of FPV may vary from 25 to 80 percent. Death commonly occurs within the first five days of illness, but can occur later by subsequent complications by other problems. Signs in kittens infected in utero, often go unnoticed before sudden death. Ataxia, or incoordination, will sometimes occur within two weeks of birth due to the viruses tropism for the rapidly dividing ce lls of the cerebellum and retina. There is no treatment for ataxia, the damage has been done at this point. When a susceptible host is exposed to an infected animal, or with the feces or urine of an infected animal, FPV enters the oropharynx and replicates in regional lymphoid tissue and intestine. Within twenty-four hours of infection, virus is present in the blood, which distributes it throughout the body. After two days of infection, nearly every body tissue contains significant amounts of the virus. As circulating antibodies appear, the amount of virus present gradually decreases. The longer the animal survives with the virus the greater the chances that it will overcome the virus. Treatment and Control of Feline Panleukopenia virus: Feline panleukopenia virus normally has a high mortality rate, but with supportive care for the symptoms the mortality rate can often be reduced. Strict isolation of the infected cat is essential to reduce the environmental contamination. The main o bjective is to keep the affected animal alive and in relative good health until the natural defenses take over. Antibodies usually appear about three or four days after the first signs of illness; two to three days later a sharp rebound in white blood cell number can be expected to occur. Thus, if the infected cat can be supported for five to seven days after onset of the disease, the chances of recovery usually are good. To combat the loss of nutrient due to vomiting and diarrhea, supplementation of specific amounts of vitamin B and A is administered. Antiemetics may be given to reduce vomiting, and intravenous fluid administration may be necessary to correct any electrolyte imbalances. Sometimes plasma or whole blood transfusions may be necessary to replace white blood cells. Since there is no specific treatment for FPV infection, preventing viral infection by vaccination is recommended. There are several excellent vaccines available to immunize cats against FPV. Both inactivated and modified-live vaccines are commercially marketed and effective in preventing FPV. Immunization using the inactivated vaccine should be initiated by the veterinarian when the kittens are eight to ten weeks old. A second vaccination should be given four weeks later. A third vaccination is recommended in areas where prevalence of infection is high. The modified-live vaccines provide the quickest protection and only require one vaccination. MLVs however should not be administered to kittens under four weeks of age, or immunocompromised animals. In conclusion, feline panleukopenia virus causes a severe, highly contagious, multisytematic disease that is endemic in the cat population. Prevention of disease by adequate vaccination is important because there is no specific treatment for FPV. The remarkable resistance of FPV to environmental conditions requires thorough cleansing and disinfection of the premesis with bleach before the introduction of new cats. Once FPV has infected a prem ises, the infectious virus, left untreated with bleach, may persist for months to years. Works Cited:Http://www.winnfelinehealth.org/health/panleukopenia.htmlHttp://www.cvm.umn.edu/Academics/course_web/current.cvm6202v/virology/parvoHttp://www.maxshouse.com/feline_panleukopenia.htm